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Since democracy began in 1990 Mongolia has enjoyed freedom of religious belief. Conditions have been laid down for the religion to develop again. Along with Buddhism, religious beliefs and denominations began to penetrate Mongolia seeking soil to cultivate their teachings and doctrines. The New Constitution of Mongolia adopted in 1992 provided citizens with the freedom of worship, and people are able to choose freely which religion to follow. Legal bases were laid for traditional religion to be revived and for other religious beliefs to coexist. Along with Buddhism, followers and supporters of other religions have emerged. Provision 9 of the Constitution of Mongolia says that "The State shall respect the Religion and the Religion shall honour the State. Relations between state and religion will be regulated by law".

 

The State Great Khural of Mongolia adopted the Law of the relationship between Religion and State in 1993. A movement to restore some monasteries and temples that were destroyed in the 20th century and to build new temples and monasteries has been launched in the last ten years and over a short period of time, over 150 monasteries and temples were built anew, and the number of lamas has reached over 3000. As of today, more than 250 places of worship and monasteries of different religious denominations like Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Shamanism, Anada Marga, Bahai, Mooni, Bombo and Krishna sects are functioning in Mongolia. Highly appreciating the historical traditions of culture, civilization and unity of the people, the attitude of the Mongolian state towards Buddhism could be described as tolerant.

 

According to the survey, the numbers of Buddhist believers and followers of other religious faiths number 13:1. Under the present conditions, Mongolian Buddhist dignitaries work in close contact with Buddhist religious temples, monasteries and religious organisations of Asia, Europe and America. The     Khamba     lama     of Gandantegchilen monastery, the Centre of Mongolian Buddhism, D.Choijamts, in 2003 was elected head  of the  Asian  Buddhists Conference for Peace. Prominent Mongolian Buddhist dignitaries have been elected to leading posts of the Asian Buddhists Federation. Islam is the traditional faith followed by the Mongolian khazakhs. There are six mosques operating on Mongolian territory.

Doctrines and teachings of Buddhism are based on the philosophy of perceiving and understanding the world. Mongolian saints considered the teachings and theories of Ikh Huleg (Great Wheel) to be based on the Choi Doctrine and therefore deeply respected them. Buddhist teachings pursue an aim of developing human wisdom, of understanding the essence of universe and of nurturing in human beings feelings of compassion, loving, kindness and amiability. This involves the recognition and perception of the force of wisdom, of the essence of the inner and outer worlds of a human being, and of reaching the state of Bodhisattva by purifying, according to the above philosophy, one's own self, mind and language. In fact, Buddhism is the science of pursuing the aim of making the human mind perfect, and of purifying the human soul. The Buddhist philosophy rejects the idea of a mighty Master of the World or Tenger (heaven). It says a human being, if he could attain enlightenment, could become a god (or Burkhan), and that a Burkhan's quality is in every human being.

 

It is not unusual and unacceptable, and if the human being attains enlightenment, and the state of Nirvana, that this would not mean the reaching of something supernatural and mysterious. According to the Buddhist philosophy, only by his own wisdom and power of his soul might one free himself from bonds and ties linking him to earthly affairs. Only by purifying one's soul, language and body would he be able to reach enlightenment and the state of Bodhisatva. The essence of Buddhist teaching lies in helping human beings reach this state, and developing his own inner and outer ability. Buddhist teachings had two doctrines, one related to the religious dogma and the other one to the religious tenets. The Doctrine of Buddhist religion, which spread throughout Mongolia several times served as a treasure trove of human wisdom and of the human inner world. The Mongols call Buddha the Burkhan or Perfectly Enlightened One.

The Mongols from early times were interacting with Buddhists culturally and spiritually. There is evidence that Buddhist religion developed during the Hun period, the earliest ancestors of the Mongols. According to historical sources, the main object of sacrifice of the population inhabiting the southwest territories of the Hunnu Empire was a 3 meter tall Golden Buddha. In the following period of the Hun state Buddhism played a significant role for the nomads of Mongolia. "We'll accumulate merits by performing good deeds and will make them grow by performing meritorious acts", ordered the leader Mu Yin of the Sumbe Mu Yin banner of the Mongol nation.

 

According to history, the Nyrun (4th-6th century) state of the Mongolian nation made Buddhism into the state religion. A Lama by the name of Dharmapria, who settled in the western areas of present day Gansu, was promoted in 420 to teacher of the Nyrun state. Buddhism was widespread in Mongolia starting from the middle of the Turkish khanate, founded after the Nyrun state, and existing up to the end of Uighur state (9th -11th century). The Kidans, before their own state emerged, set up the first Buddhist monastery in 902. Chinggis Khaan, after the foundation of a united Mongol empire, wrote in a letter to Tibetan Lama Sajiin Khambo in 1206: "Though I want to invite you, my state affairs are not finished yet. Pray for me". In one of his following letters, Chinggis Khaan exempted the superior of the Tibetan religion from tax.

 

Some of Chinggis Khaan's close associate ministers were conversant in Buddhist religious teachings. Encouraging the Buddhist religion, Ugedei Khaan (1229-1241) began to erect a big Buddhist suburgan in Kharakorum, which later, in 1256, was completed during the time of Munkh Khaan's rule. Buddhism flourished during the time of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Khubilai Khan (1215-1294), pursuing the state policy of the Mongol khaans, who revered and supported Buddhism, invited Pagva lama Lodoijaltsan of Tibetan Sajii sect to his palace in 1260 to write his books, and promoted him to the post of head lama of Yun state in Shand city, and handed him the seal of the state teacher.

 

The successors of Khubilai welcomed the head lamas, publicists of the Buddhist ideology and granted them the titles of state teachers. During the second half of the 16th century, with the help and support of Mongolian statesmen, religious scholars and Tibetan religious leaders, Buddhism was revived in Mongolia for the third time. Undur Gegeen Zanabazar of Khalkh, Zaya Pandida Luvsanperenlei, Zaya Pandida Namkhaijamts, Enlightened lama Choizad, Neij Toi, Pandida Ayush-gun of Huhhot, Altan Khan of Turned, Avtai Sain Khan of Khalkh, Ligden, Galdan Boshigt khaan of Oirad, Tumen Sain Noyon Khan and many other nobilities played a significant role in the development of Buddhism in Mongolia.

 

For example, Altan Khan of Turned (1507-1589) invited the Tibetan lama, Yondonjamts, to Mongolia and bestowed on him the distinguished title of Ochirdari Dalai Lama, and the prestigious title of Dalai Lama thus emerged. Since then, some Mongol khaans encouraged Buddhism and strove to use Buddhism in the reunion of their disintegrated nation with the help of spiritual devotion. Ligden Khutagt Khaan (1592-1634) decreed to translate the Ganjuur and Danjuur shastri sutra into the Mongolian language in 1628-1629. Thirty five scholarly saints led by Gungaa Odser participated in performing this work. From this time the Mongols actively participated in spreading Buddhism.

 

Along with the translation and explanation of works created by Indian and Tibetan scholars, the learned saint lamas of Khalha and Oirat in particular, began to write books on religious philosophy. Considerable amount of works on Buddhist philosophy composed by such renowned   religious   saints   as Nagarjuna, Asanga, Vasuvandu, Dignaga,  Dharmakirti and Dharmottara were translated into the Mongolian language, thus serving as valuable  research materials. Mongols also wrote many religious books in the Tibetan language. The number of people who wrote books in the Tibetan language numbered more than 200, and the books they composed reached several hundred.

 

Buddhist culture has been studied in perfect order from the second half of the 17th century and from the foundation of Ikh Huree. Ikh Huree was one of the biggest cultural centres for many hundred years not only for Mongolian Buddhists but for Buddhists around the world. The religious school of Gandan, established in 1739, produced highly educated and celebrated lamas of the time, who were renowned not only in Mongolia but in the Orient as well. There were thousands of monasteries, temples, Buddhist prayer places and libraries. Buddhist temples and monasteries were the places of cultural and intellectual life in Mongolian society.

 

Buddhist religious knowledge and intellectual development in Mongolia, until the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, was amongst the best in the world. A great number of sages and saints, who specialised and penetrated into the philosophic depth of Buddhist religious doctrines and professionals in Buddhism, were born in Mongolia. Buddhism in that particular time performed the role of an official ideology, which significantly strengthened Mongolian relations with other oriental countries.

 

Buddhism gradually replaced indigenous shaman traditions and rituals, by introducing the cultural achievements of India and Tibet into the wild steppe lands and playing a decisive role in developing culture and civilization. The best Buddhist masterpieces of art are kept in the Gandan monastery, and in other temples, monasteries and museums of Mongolia. Canons and doctrines of the Buddhist philosophy which are dispersed throughout the country deeply impacted Mongolian culture, the intellect of the Mongolian people, its traditions and customs, and became the religion of the Mongolian nation.

The most interesting period in the religious attitudes of the Mongols was the period when Chinggis Khaan founded the Great Mongol Empire. Chinggis Khaan and his successors idolised shamanism and holy spirits. The shamans, who worshipped the Eternal Blue Sky, were never banned by other religious denominations. Kharakhorum, the capital of the Great Mongol Empire, was one of the greatest cultural, religious and political centres of its time in the world. Buddhists, Christians, Nestorians, Muslims and Confucians co-existed by setting up their own temples and monasteries. History tells us that the monasteries and temples had their own governing centres and head authorities.

 

In Kharakhorum, along with shamanism, there was a Buddhist lamasery, two mosques, one Christian church and 12 temples of other religions. Beginning with the Great Bogd Chinggis, the Mongolian khaans and nobles never discriminated against the religious denominations of conquered nations and let them co-exist on an equal footing. Khubilai Khaan celebrated the holy festivals of various religions. The history of the Yuan dynasty says that people observed together festivals such as the birthday of Christ and his rebirth. The same was observed by Muslims who celebrated Jewish and Buddhist religious events.

 

Khubilai said, "These four holy saints are being deeply revered by the people in any corner of the world". According to historians the Mongols were tolerant of the religious faiths of any nationality that helped them to rule the country they dominated. On the other hand, it would be wrong to say the Mongol khaans and nobles, who learned much by traversing half of the world, were the people to discriminate against other beliefs. It is probable that the wise and sound policy of the Mongol khaans and high-ranking nobles of the time was the secret to the successful conquering of half the world.

 

Humankind does not know of a peaceful co-existence of different religions under one roof as in the period of the Great Mongol Empire of the 13th century. The Polish scientist V.Kotwich concludes that "in the 13th century the Mongols initiated world peace", bringing the religious policy of the Mongol khaans to light is a historical fact". Another historical example is that "Marco Polo benefited from the peace brought by the Mongols to travel safely from Venice through Asia and back. Polo's adventure became an inspiration for the later explorations of European explorers" (World History, Volume I. 4th edition. 1996, page 170).

The worship of wild animals by ancient Mongols was lost in medieval times and replaced by the worship of an Eternal Heaven, when an abstract understanding of heaven appeared. In other words, the understanding that there exists a god who supports the world deeply penetrated into the minds of people, thus creating an earth into which the shaman-ist faith could be born. Eternal sky is supreme and receives the utmost devotion from the Mongolian shamans. The sky is male, and earth female. The eternal sky was thought to be a supreme universe containing many heavens of good and bad nature. The Asar Heaven is made out of a total of 99 heavens, of which 55 are of western direction, and are considered to be good for man and always perform good deeds.

 

The 44 heavens of east direction have been considered as furious and arrogant and as performers of bad deeds. The shamans believe that once these heavens were united under the rule of a powerful Asura. When Asura died the heavens divided into two hostile sides. The leader among the western heavens was Khan Khurmast and that of the eastern heavens was Ataa Ulaan Tenger. The understanding of the heavens was vast, for every heaven was closely associated with a certain natural phenomena or human life or ruled over a specific destiny and fate. This is similar to Grecian ideology, believing in Gods like Zeus.

 

For example, the Hail Heaven ruled the thunderstorm, White Heaven of Zad ruled rain, Red Fire Heaven ruled drought and zud, the Black Daughter Heaven cared for humans and young animals, the White Old Man cared for cattle and livestock, the Manakhan Heaven protected hunting and trophies, while the Daivan Blue Heaven inspired artisans and craft science. The spiritual and magical power of shamanism differed in its magnificence. The male and female shamans entered into a trance, summoning the heavens and acting as a mediator between people and sky. The male shaman was called Zairan, and female shaman Udgan.

 

Black shamans who contacted bad spirits and reeked havoc while white shamans contacted good spirits and performed good deeds. From ancient times, the Mongols considered shamans as possessors of an extraordinary spiritual power. The Mongol shamans of early years were said to have the power to call for rain from cloudless skies, cause thunderstorms, make rivers flow in opposite directions, to overcome difficulties in time and space and predict the future. All ancient Mongolian banners follow shamanism. Modun Khaan of Hun, the first Mongolian state, used to bow to the early morning sun and late night moon. There were many shamanist monasteries and temples on the territory of the Hun state.

 

The Hun's khaan was deeply respected and called "Tengeriin Huvuun" (Son of Heaven). During the state ceremonial ritual shamanistic prayers were used, which indicated that there might be a move towards shamanism as a state religion. Through the worshipping of the sun, moon, earth, rivers, lakes, elders and the sacrificing of sheep and cattle, the Sumbe also followed shamanism. The Toba tribe conducted an offering ceremony and placed 7 or 49 wooden men relating to shamanist rituals as offerings. The Jujans, like the Mongolian tribes, were followers of shamanism. The shamans, male and female alike, played a significant role in Jujan khan's palace.

 

The Tureg tribe also believed in shamanism, and conducted shamanistic rituals, worshipped the blue skies and the earth. The Kirghizs, gathered together on the steppe, performed shamanistic rituals and worshipped the gods of land and water. Uighurs also worshipped sky and land and followed shamanism. They conducted offerings to the mountains and built ovoos. During the Great Mongol Empire the shamanist religion was respected as a state religion. When the Great Bogd Chinggis Khaan united the Mongol tribes under one roof, one of his close associates was a shaman named Dev Tenger. The shaman was an important and fortunate person who was included in state ceremonies or when warriors were sent to a battlefield.

 

Performing an offering to an ovoo (sacred monument), and predicting the future were the most popular forms of shamanist traditions in Mongolia. It is very common in rural regions of Mongolia to perform shamanist rituals to mountains and water, asking for rain or conducting the Naadam feast. Fortune telling from a shoulder-bone of a sheep has become a tradition. In conclusion from all this it could be said that rituals of the shamanist religion played a dominant role in the consciousness of the ancient Mongols. Literature related to shamanism, and shamanist rituals to evoke spirits greatly influenced the intellectual culture of the Mongols.